Classical Conditioning Definition and Examples

Classical conditioning is a behaviorist theory of learning. It posits that when a naturally occurring stimulus and an environmental stimulus are repeatedly paired, the environmental stimulus will eventually elicit a similar response to the natural stimulus. The most famous studies associated with classical conditioning are Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs. Key Takeaways: Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is the process by which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a stimulus in the environment, and as a result, the environmental stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the natural stimulus.Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, who conducted a series of classic experiments with dogs.Classical conditioning was embraced by the branch of psychology known as behaviorism. Origins and Influence Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning arose out his observations of his dogs’ salivation responses. While dogs naturally salivate when food touches their tongues, Pavlov noticed that his dogs salivation extended beyond that innate response. They salivated when they saw him approach with food or even just heard his footsteps. In other words, stimuli that had previously been neutral became conditioned because of their repeated association with a natural response. Although Pavlov wasn’t a psychologist, and in fact believed his work on classical conditioning was physiological, his discovery had a major influence on psychology. In particular, Pavlov’s work was popularized in psychology by John B. Watson. Watson kicked off the behaviorist movement in psychology in 1913 with a manifesto that said psychology should abandon the study of things like consciousness and only study observable behavior, including stimuli and responses. After discovering Pavlov’s experiments a year later, Watson made classical conditioning the foundation of his ideas. Pavlov’s Experiments Classical conditioning requires placing a neutral stimulus immediately before a stimulus that automatically occurs, which eventually leads to a learned response to the formerly neutral stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiments, he presented food to a dog while shining a light in a dark room or ringing a bell. The dog automatically salivated when the food was placed in its mouth. After the presentation of the food was repeatedly paired with the light or bell, the dog started salivating when it saw the light or heard the bell, even when no food was presented. In other words, the dog was conditioned to associate the previously neutral stimulus with the salivation response. Types of Stimuli and Responses Each of the stimuli and responses in classical conditioning are referred to by specific terms that can be illustrated with reference to Pavlov’s experiments. The presentation of food to the dog is referred to as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because the dog’s response to the food occurs naturally.The light or bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because the dog must learn to associate it with the desired response.Salivation in response to the food is called the unconditioned response (UCR) because it’s an innate reflex.Salivation to the light or bell is the conditioned response (CR) because the dog learns to associate that response with the conditioned stimulus. The Three Stages of Classical Conditioning The process of classical conditioning occurs in three basic stages: Before Conditioning At this stage the UCS and CS have no relationship. The UCS comes up in the environment and naturally elicits a UCR. The UCR wasn’t taught or learned, it’s a completely innate reaction. For example, the first time a person takes a ride on a boat (UCS) they may become seasick (UCR). At this point the CS is a neutral stimulus (NS). It has yet to produce any kind of response because it hasn’t been conditioned yet. During Conditioning During the second stage, the UCS and NS are paired leading the previously neutral stimulus to become a CS. The CS occurs just before or at the same time as the UCS and in the process the CS becomes associated with UCS and, by extension, the UCR. Generally the UCS and CS must be paired several times in order to reinforce the association between the two stimuli. However, there are times when this isn’t necessary. For example, if an individual gets sick once after eating a specific food, that food may continue to make them nauseous in the future. So, if the individual on the boat drank fruit punch (CS) right before getting sick (UCR), they could learn to associate fruit punch (CS) with feeling ill (CR). After Conditioning Once the UCS and CS have been associated, the CS will trigger a response without the need to present the UCS with it. The CS now elicits the CR. The individual has learned to associate a specific response with a previously neutral stimulus. Thus, the individual who got seasick may find that in the future fruit punch (CS) makes them feel ill (CR), despite the fact that the fruit punch really had nothing to do with the individual getting sick on the boat. Other Principles of Classical Conditioning There are several additional principles in classical conditioning that further detail how the process works. These principles include the following: Extinction As its name suggests, extinction happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer associated with an unconditioned stimulus leading to a decrease or complete disappearance of the conditioned response. For example, Pavlov’s dogs started to salivate in response to the sound of a bell after the sound was paired with food over several trials. However, if the bell was sounded several times without the food, over time the dog’s salivation would decrease and eventually stop. Spontaneous Recovery Even after extinction has occurred, the conditioned response may not be gone forever. Sometimes spontaneous recovery happens in which the response reemerges after a period of extinction. For example, suppose after extinguishing a dog’s conditioned response of salivation to a bell, the bell isn’t sounded for a period of time. If the bell is then sounded after that break, the dog will salivate again — a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response. If the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli aren’t paired again, though, spontaneous recovery won’t last long and extinction will again occur. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization happens when, after a stimulus has been conditioned to a specific response, other stimuli that may be associated with the conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. The additional stimuli are not conditioned but are similar to the conditioned stimulus, leading to generalization. So, if a dog is conditioned to salivate to the tone of a bell, the dog will also salivate to other bell tones. Although the conditioned response may not occur if the tone is too dissimilar to the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus generalization often doesn’t last. Over time, stimulus discrimination begins to occur in which stimuli are differentiated and only the conditioned stimulus and possibly stimuli that are very similar elicit the conditioned response. So, if a dog continues to hear different bell tones, over time the dog will start to distinguish between the tones and will only salivate to the conditioned tone and ones that sound almost like it.   Higher-Order Conditioning In his experiments, Pavlov demonstrated that after he has conditioned a dog to respond to a particular stimulus, he could pair the conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus and extend the conditioned response to the new stimulus. This is called second-order-conditioning. For example, after a dog was conditioned to salivate to a bell, the bell was presented with a black square. After several trials the black square could elicit salivation by itself. While Pavlov found he could also establish third-order-conditioning in his research, he was unable to extend higher-order conditioning beyond that point. Examples Examples of classical conditioning can be observed in the real world. One instance is various forms of drug addiction. If a drug is repeatedly taken in specific circumstances (say, a specific location), the user may become used to the substance in that context and require more of it to get the same effect, called tolerance. However, if the individual takes the drug in a different environmental context, the individual may overdose. This is because the user’s typical environment has become a conditioned stimulus  that prepares the body for a conditioned response to the drug. In the absence of this conditioning, the body may not be adequately prepared for the drug. A more positive example of classical conditioning is its use to support wildlife conservation efforts. Lions in Africa were conditioned to dislike the taste of beef in order to keep them from preying on cattle and coming into conflict with farmers because of it. Eight lions were given beef treated with a deworming agent that gave them indigestion. After doing this several times, the lions developed an aversion to meat, even if it wasn’t treated with the deworming agent. Given their aversion to the meat, these lions would be highly unlikely to prey on cattle. Classical conditioning can also be used in therapy and the classroom. For example, to combat anxieties and phobias such as a fear of spiders, a therapist might repeatedly show an individual an image of a spider while they are performing relaxation techniques so the individual can form as association between spiders and relaxation. Similarly, if a teacher couples a subject that makes students nervous, like math, with a pleasant and positive environment, the student will learn to feel more positive about math. Critiques While there are numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning, the concept has been criticized for several reasons. First, classical conditioning has been accused of being deterministic because it ignores the role of free will in peoples behavioral responses. Classical conditioning anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation. This may help psychologists predict human behavior, but it underestimates individual differences. Classical conditioning has also been criticized for emphasizing learning from the environment and therefore championing nurture over nature. The behaviorists were committed to only describing what they could observe so they would stay away from any speculation about the influence of biology on behavior. Yet, human behavior is likely more complex than simply what can be observed in the environment. A final criticism of classical conditioning is that it is reductionist. Although classical conditioning is certainly scientific because it utilizes controlled experiments to arrive at its conclusions, it also breaks down complex behaviors into small units made up of a single stimulus and response. This can lead to explanations for behavior that are incomplete.  Ã‚   Sources Cherry, Kendra. â€Å"What is Classical Conditioning?† Verywell Mind, 28 September 2018. https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.Goldman, Jason G. â€Å"What is Classical Conditioning? (And Why Does it Matter?)† Scientific American, 11 January 2012. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-classical-conditioning-and-why-does-it-matter/McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Classical Conditioning.† Simply Psychology, 21 August 2018. https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.htmlPlatt, John R. Lions vs. Cattle: Taste Aversion Could Solve African Predator Problem. Scientific American, 27 December, 2011. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/lions-vs-cattle-taste-aversion/

Was Dropping The Atomic Bomb On Japan The Best Way For The...

Was dropping the atomic bomb on Japan the best way for the United States to force Japan to surrender unconditionally? World War II was a war fought between the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers. The main Allies were France before it fell, the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States. The main Axis were Italy, Japan and Germany. War broke out in 1939 and did not end until 1945. On May 8, 1945 the Allies won victory over Europe, thereby they won victory over Italy and Germany. However the Allies did not defeat nor receive the surrender of Japan until months later. The Japanese would not and did not surrender until the United States dropped a new weapon of war. This â€Å"no surrender† was mainly due to the Japanese code of the samurai, or†¦show more content†¦On August 15, 1945 Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s unconditional surrender over the radio â€Å"citing the devastating power of â€Å"a new and most cruel bomb.†(History, par.1) Victory ove r Japan had been achieved. On September 2, aboard the USS Missouri the Japanese formally surrenders. After the United States dropped the atomic bombs, it put the United States in a dominate position due to the knowledge that they, if not have a weapon of mass destruction, then they have the ability to create a weapon of mass destruction. This also resulted in other countries wanting a weapon of mass destruction for a variety of reasons. There were six possible responses President Truman could have decided upon to solve this problem he faced. The first possible response was to drop the atomic bomb(s). This is response that President Truman decided upon. This decision was to drop an atomic bomb on a chosen Japanese city and if the Japanese still would not surrender, then a second atomic bomb would be dropped on a second chosen city. This is the best response to the problem of how the United States was supposed to force Japan to surrender unconditionally and end the war. 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Mission Log A Mission Of The Highest Honor - 1960 Words

Mission Log: 001 January 4th, 2127 My identification number is 9777, but everyone here affectionately calls me Sevens. I have been living in hell for the last six months, or as our supervisors call it, the Exodus Rehabilitation Center. We are here to be prepared for â€Å"a mission of the highest honor†, but we all know that is a lie. They have been feeding us some propaganda that we will be a part of historic mission that will help unite our planet, when in reality we are the last ditch effort to save us. What they don’t know about me is who I really am. Long before I was born our world fell into a class war, and by all accounts a nasty one that the upper class â€Å"won†. The poor were pushed out of the cities. They were stripped of their†¦show more content†¦I didn’t realize that though, I was only ten at the time. I was in the park when the sirens sounded; it was too late at that point though. I was knocked to the ground and slammed my head onto the merry go round. The last thi ng I remember was my brother screaming. When I woke up I was in the ghetto near my city in a small ragged tin house with a women and her daughter standing over me. This would be my new family, my new home, my new way of life. Or so I thought, till the government came and rounded up all of the prospects, or as we refer to ourselves, space slaves. Mission Log: 002 January 6th, 2127 Today the shuffled us into the auditorium immediately after our post lunch workout. Io looked like he was about to erupt out of anger, he doesn’t take kindly to any authority figure giving him instructions. That’s why I gave him the nickname Io, I always thought it was fitting and he didn’t know enough about Jupiter’s moon to realize I was poking fun at his volcanic temperament. The temperatures of the moon are actually about negative 202 degrees Fahrenheit [8] which makes sense if you believe that maybe Io is a nice guy deep down. The volcanos though can reach temperatures of 3000 degrees Fahrenheit [8] which makes a little more sense with his personality. And the moon appears to be red, yellow and orange [8] which about describes his face when he is about to beat someone to a pulp. I did this for everyone though, they made it to easy. I was an

Qualitative Study-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Identify a Single Piece of Qualitative Research in the form of a Published, peer reviewed article. Answer: Introduction To evaluate the robustness of the findings, critical scrutiny of the published research article is obvious. The paper aims to assess the quality of the qualitative research paper using the criteria outlined in Rationale and standards for the systematic review of qualitative literature in health services research'by Popay et al. (1998). It is the formalized framework for the evaluation of the qualitative study. This framework is useful in allowing the qualitative studies specified in health research to receive optimum recognition. The qualitative study identified for this purpose is based on a theme of obesity, Identifying families reasons for engaging or not engaging with childhood obesity services: A qualitative study by Banks et al. (2014). This paper is concerned with the management of obesity by highlighting the value of engaging children in the health care decision to attend the obesity services. Evaluation According to Popays criteria, the one criterion to good qualitative study is the provision sufficient details such as background, objectives highlighted with succinct statements, clear description of the methodology and discussion of the main findings (Popay et al. 1998). Banks et al. (2014) have provided a concise title to the article that itself give a precise hint about the purpose and methodology of the research. The authors credentials indicating the credibility of the research follow the title. The background of the study is not too extensive. It is able to inform readers about the problem area, which is obesity and its significance. Thus, the relevance of the research is identified in the background of the study as also highlighted by (Holmes 2014). As the background is followed by short literature, it indicates that subject has been thoroughly researched by the author. As per the Popays criteria, a qualitative study must be able to illuminate the subjective meaning and actions and the context of those being researched. Right in the abstract Banks et al. (2014), the researcher articulates the use of the qualitative interviews to examine families reasons for engaging or not engaging with child obesity services. The desired method for research suggested appears justified. The qualitative paper clearly highlights the context of those being researched. Since the study aims to identify the reason for attrition due to lack of adherence to treatment. Thus, it is justified that the researchers consider 15 families who attended a UK-based childhood obesity service with children and 17 families whose children withdrew from the intervention. Thus, this qualitative paper is well set out allowing the readers to well recognise the research design and read effortlessly (Cope 2014). The paper does not demonstrate in details about the verstehen approach adopted to illuminate the meaning people attach to their behaviour that is in adherence to the intervention for obesity (Popay et al. 1998). However, Banks et al. (2014), designed the paper to draw the data from the interviews with families who participated in the Primary Care Care of Childhood Obesity (PC-COCO), Randomised control trial (two armed). This trial assessed the effectiveness of incorporating the established secondary care clinic in the primary care setting. In short, the privilege of the subjective meaning is not evident from the paper (LoBiondo-Wood and Haber 2017). Prior to the methodology section, the author highlights the results of the trial where he found poor attrition rate, but the potentiality of the primary care service was noted. A qualitative study must have the evidence of adoption and responsiveness of the research design to the circumstances. Further, during the course of the study, the issue of social settings in real life should be met. In short, there is a need of variability instead of standardisation, which is the hallmark of good qualitative methodology (Popay et al. 1998). The same is evident in this paper were sampling, data collection, its interpretation and are interdependent. The Popays criteria mention that the qualitative research must have the sample that produces the type of knowledge to understand the environment in which the participants are assessed. In the chosen paper, the author has chosen purposive convenience sampling. All the participants are the most appropriate to the task itself and involve maximum variation. However, the paper does not highlight the reason why some participants did not turn for the interview (Leung 2015). Further, the author has clearly mentioned as to who cond ucted the interview and that it was conducted over the phone for the group of participants that withdrew from treatment. For the group that participated in the intervention were interviewed in their homes with children. The use of the semi-structured interview was justified as the interviewer can look for the technique of verbal communication and how the responses were given (Munn et al. 2014). The element of vagueness is eliminated in the paper by Banks et al. (2014) as he mentioned the duration of the interview and data recording process. Further, prior to discussing on the methodology, the author elucidates the process of trial to rationalise the research. This section thus meets the hallmark criteria of the qualitative study. During this study, thematic mode of data analysis was used (Banks et al. 2014). This coding method recognises main themes, and emphasise on ideas and feelings (Popay et al. 1998). Since more than one author was involved in the interview process, its eliminates the probability of discrepancies and bias. This is also evident from the ethics committee approval and informed consent taken from participants. There is an evidence of adequate description of the individual sections such as introduction, methods, results and discussions as well as on the subsections such as the interview with families, data analysis and presentation (Holloway and Galvin 2016). The Popays criteria emphasise on the evidence of data quality and of theoretical and of conceptual adequacy (Popay et al. 1998). The paper must have a potential for assessing typicality. The paper demonstrates interpretive validity. The researcher Banks et al. (2014) not only described the data but also gave the quotation to interpret the meaning and significance of the response. The researcher did not give a wide comparison of the statements and indexes of the behaviour. In the qualitative paper, the author findings are scientifically credible and can be transferred to others settings as highlighted by Popay et al. (1998). The findings can be used to understand the attrition of the people in the diabetes treatment clinics. The author of the qualitative paper has linked the purposefulness to the representativeness. In addition, the researcher has not missed highlighting the strengths, limitations, practice implications such as incorporating the childs clinical decision-making process (Kallio et al. 2016). The author has also provided suggestions lastly to improve the clinical environment to decrease the attrition rate. The parts of the setting can be treated as typical of a large number of setting. In case the setting, time and place are explicit, it may enhance the typicality of the findings by using other sources such as congruent pieces of research, non-official statistics, and policy documents (Lipp and Fothergill 2015). Conclusion The criterion that was considered a hallmark of the good qualitative health research is met o a great context by the chosen qualitative paper. The paper was thus evaluated using the Popays criteria on various dimensions such as interpretation of the subjective meaning, theoretical basis, sampling process, data collection methods, and concern with generalisability. The findings were important, and the background information was sufficient to make the judgments. Overall, the qualitative paper has clear implications for policy and practice. Thus, Popays criteria well define the quality standards for assessing the qualitative methodology in the health service research. References Banks, J., Cramer, H., Sharp, D.J., Shield, J.P. and Turner, K.M., 2014. Identifying families reasons for engaging or not engaging with childhood obesity services: A qualitative study.Journal of Child Health Care,18(2), pp.101-110. Cope, D.G., 2014, January. Methods and meanings: credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research. InOncology nursing forum(Vol. 41, No. 1). Holloway, I. and Galvin, K., 2016.Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare. John Wiley Sons. Holmes, J., 2014. Countertransference in qualitative research: a critical appraisal.Qualitative Research,14(2), pp.166-183. Kallio, H., Pietil, A.M., Johnson, M. and Kangasniemi, M., 2016. Systematic methodological review: developing a framework for a qualitative semi?structured interview guide.Journal of advanced nursing,72(12), pp.2954-2965. Leung, L., 2015. Validity, reliability, and generalizability in qualitative research.Journal of family medicine and primary care,4(3), p.324. Lipp, A. and Fothergill, A., 2015. A guide to critiquing a research paper. Methodological appraisal of a paper on nurses in abortion care.Nurse education today,35(3), pp.e14-e17. LoBiondo-Wood, G. and Haber, J., 2017.Nursing Research-E-Book: Methods and Critical Appraisal for Evidence-Based Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Munn, Z., Porritt, K., Lockwood, C., Aromataris, E. and Pearson, A., 2014. Establishing confidence in the output of qualitative research synthesis: the ConQual approach.BMC medical research methodology,14(1), p.108. Popay, J., Rogers, A. and Williams, G., 1998. Rationale and standards for the systematic review of qualitative literature in health services research.Qualitative health research,8(3), pp.341-351.